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Determining the optimal dose size and dosing frequency in pharmacotherapy is crucial for achieving therapeutic effectiveness while minimizing adverse effects. This article explores the methodologies employed in determining these parameters, focusing on their significance and interplay to tailor dosing regimens.Dose Size: Dose size refers to the amount of a drug administered in a single dose. It is determined based on the drug's pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics properties and...
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In 1931, physicist Ernst Ruska—building on the idea that magnetic fields can direct an electron beam just as lenses can direct a beam of light in an optical microscope—developed the first prototype of the electron microscope. This development led to the development of the field of electron microscopy. In the transmission electron microscope (TEM), electrons are produced by a hot tungsten element and accelerated by a potential difference in an electron gun, which gives them up to 400...
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A loading dose is an essential pharmacological strategy to rapidly achieve the target plasma drug concentration necessary for an immediate therapeutic effect. This approach is especially critical for drugs characterized by slow absorption or extended half-lives, where delaying therapeutic plasma levels could compromise treatment outcomes. By administering a loading dose, clinicians ensure a prompt onset of drug action, even for agents with complex pharmacokinetic profiles.Achieving steady-state...
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Fixed-dose regimens are a common approach to administer drugs to achieve and maintain desired levels of the drug in the body. In this dosing strategy, a specific amount of medication is given at regular intervals, often multiple times a day, to ensure a consistent drug concentration in the bloodstream.
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Agonists can bind with and activate receptors, resulting in the formation of drug-receptor complexes. Once formed, these complexes catalyze many biochemical processes at the cellular level and subsequently induce a pharmacologic response. The degree of response is directly proportional to the fraction of activated receptors, which in turn, depends on the concentration of the drug at the receptor site as well as the sensitivity of the receptor. An increase in the administered dose contributes to...
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Designing a dosage regimen, which refers to the manner of drug administration, is a complex process involving the selection of drug dose, route, and frequency. This process is underpinned by pharmacokinetic parameters derived from tests and population averages. These parameters are then tailored to patient-specific variables such as diagnosis, demographics, and allergy status. Once therapy commences, therapeutic response monitoring is critical and achieved through clinical and physical...
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Dose measurement in the TEM and STEM.

R F Egerton1

  • 1Physics Department, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada T6G 2E1.

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|August 3, 2021
PubMed
Summary

This study simplifies radiation dosimetry for electron microscopy by providing a formula to convert electron fluence to Grays. This method offers accurate mass-thickness measurements for light elements.

Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Physics
  • Electron Microscopy

Background:

  • Accurate radiation dosimetry is crucial in electron microscopy for quantitative analysis.
  • Challenges exist in measuring electron beam parameters and dose, especially with focused probes or scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) imaging.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To address practical dosimetry challenges in electron microscopy.
  • To propose a simplified method for converting electron fluence to radiation dose in Grays.
  • To introduce a novel technique for measuring local mass-thickness in light-element specimens.

Main Methods:

  • Consideration of practical dosimetry aspects, including electron-beam current and current density measurements.
  • Analysis of complications in focused probe and STEM imaging with proposed solutions.
Keywords:
Gray unitsSTEMdosimetryradiation damagestopping power

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  • Development of a formula for converting electron fluence to Grays based on stopping power.
  • Validation of the formula through comparisons with stopping-power calculations and Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) measurements.

    • Main Results:

    • A simple formula is presented for converting electron fluence to Grays, accurate to within 5%.
    • The formula relies on the near constancy of stopping power per atomic electron.
    • A new method for measuring local mass-thickness of light-element specimens is proposed, based on the stopping power formula.
    • The average energy loss per inelastic collision is found to be higher than previously estimated.

    Conclusions:

    • The proposed dosimetry method offers practical advantages for electron microscopy.
    • The new formula provides an accurate and straightforward way to quantify radiation dose.
    • The technique enables precise mass-thickness determination for light elements, enhancing analytical capabilities.