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Proofreading

Proofreading

Synthesis of new DNA molecules is carried out by the enzyme DNA polymerase, which adds nucleotides on the daughter strand complementary to the template DNA strand. DNA polymerase has a higher affinity to add the correct base and ensures fidelity during DNA replication. Furthermore, it exhibits proofreading activity during replication, using an exonuclease domain that cuts off incorrect nucleotides from the nascent DNA strand.
Errors During Replication are Corrected by the DNA Polymerase...

Proofreading

Proofreading

Nucleic Acid Structure

Nucleic Acid Structure

The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA the pentose sugar is ribose. The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group on the ribose's second carbon and a hydrogen on the deoxyribose's second carbon. The phosphate residue attaches to the hydroxyl group of the 5′ carbon of one sugar and the hydroxyl group of the 3′ carbon of the sugar of the next nucleotide, which forms a 5′ to 3′ phosphodiester linkage.
DNA Structure
DNA...

The Central Dogma

The Central Dogma

The Central Dogma

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between DNA and Proteins
In the early 1900s, scientists discovered that DNA stores all the information needed for cellular functions and that proteins perform most of these functions. However, the mechanisms of converting genetic information into functional proteins remained unknown for many years. Initially, it was believed that a single gene is...

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell's genetic blueprint and carry instructions for its functioning.
DNA and RNA
The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. It is in the nucleus of eukaryotes and in the organelles, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. In prokaryotes,...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 25, 2025

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

Published on: December 29, 2021

Poly(ADP-Ribosyl) Code Functions.

N V Maluchenko¹, D O Koshkina¹, A V Feofanov^1,2

¹Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Biology, Moscow, 119234 Russia.

|August 11, 2021

Summary

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, a key cellular process, uses distinct poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) structures to regulate cellular functions and responses. Dysregulation of PAR metabolism is linked to diseases, suggesting therapeutic potential.

Keywords:

NAD+PAR code PARG PARP phase separation poly-ADP-ribose

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Area of Science:

Biochemistry
Molecular Biology
Cellular Biology

Background:

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PAR) is crucial for cellular metabolism, impacting DNA repair, gene expression, and stress responses.
PAR molecules, through covalent and non-covalent interactions, modulate diverse cellular activities, including inflammation and immune responses.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the multifaceted roles of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) in cellular processes.
To explore the concept of the "PAR code" and its implications in biological regulation.
To discuss the link between PAR metabolism and various diseases, and its therapeutic potential.

Main Methods:

Literature review of studies on poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation.
Analysis of the structural diversity and functional implications of PAR molecules.
Examination of the regulatory network of PAR metabolism (writers, readers, erasers).

Main Results:

Structurally distinct PAR molecules act as a "PAR code," differentially regulating cellular processes.
PAR polymers can form functional biomolecular clusters via phase separation, enabling spatial organization and component recruitment.
Impaired PAR metabolism is implicated in oncological, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Conclusions:

The "PAR code" provides a sophisticated mechanism for cellular regulation.
Phase separation of PAR polymers is a key mechanism for organizing cellular functions.
Modulating PAR levels offers a promising therapeutic strategy for treating major diseases.