Concurrent Reactive Oxygen Species Generation and Aneuploidy Induction Contribute to Thymoquinone Anticancer Activity

Thymoquinone (TQ) is the main biologically active constituent of Nigella sativa. Many studies have confirmed its anticancer actions. Herein, we investigated the different anticancer activities of, and considered resistance mechanisms to, TQ. MTT and clonogenic data showed TQ's ability to suppress breast MDA-MB-468 and T-47D proliferation at lower concentrations compared to other cancer and non-transformed cell lines tested (GI₅₀ values ≤ 1.5 µM). Flow-cytometric analyses revealed that TQ consistently induced MDA-MB-468 and T-47D cell-cycle perturbation, specifically inducing pre-G1 populations. In comparison, less sensitive breast MCF-7 and colon HCT-116 cells exhibited only transient increases in pre-G1 events. Annexin V/PI staining confirmed apoptosis induction in MDA-MB-468 and HCT-116 cells, which was continuous in the former and transient in the latter. Experiments revealed the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and aneuploidy induction in MDA-MB-468 cells within the first 24 h of treatment. The ROS-scavenger NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone 1) (NQO1; DT-diaphorase) and glutathione (GSH) were implicated in resistance to TQ. Indeed, western blot analyses showed that NQO1 is expressed in all cell lines in this study, except those most sensitive to TQ-MDA-MB-468 and T-47D. Moreover, TQ treatment increased NQO1 expression in HCT-116 in a concentration-dependent fashion. Measurement of GSH activity in MDA-MB-468 and HCT-116 cells found that GSH is similarly active in both cell lines. Furthermore, GSH depletion rendered these cells more sensitive to TQ's antiproliferative actions. Therefore, to bypass putative inactivation of the TQ semiquinone metabolite, the benzylamine analogue was designed and synthesised following modification of TQ's carbon-3 atom. However, the structural modification negatively impacted potency against MDA-MB-468 cells. In conclusion, we disclose the following: (i) The anticancer activity of TQ may be a consequence of ROS generation and aneuploidy; (ii) Early GSH depletion could substantially enhance TQ's anticancer activity; (iii) Benzylamine substitution at TQ's carbon-3 failed to enhance anticancer activity.