The evolution of evolutionary processes in organismal and cancer evolution

The evolution of early life and of contemporary viruses has been driven in significant part by random genetic mutations, while modern unicellular and organismal evolution primarily leverages evolved, efficient and active cell biology processes for adaptive changes prior to selection. Random mutations are often buffered by cell homeostasis, or they have a negative role, e.g., by causing death or monogenic diseases, or by triggering real-time cancer evolution. Accordingly, the Modern Synthesis theory no longer adequately describes the efficient, often punctuated and at times directionally adaptive natural genetic engineering (NGE) processes deduced from the DNA record of evolution. Similarly, the somatic mutation theory (SMT) of cancer describes driver mutations that can trigger oncogenesis, and passenger mutations characteristic of periods of genetic microevolution in cancer. At the precancerous stage, most somatic mutations are repaired or buffered in the cell, aberrant cells are removed, or organismal bioelectric tissue signals or other physiological functional networks maintain control of rogue, mutated cells. However, the SMT is not sufficient to describe the observed punctuated macroevolution of cancer-cell genes, chromosomes, karyotypes and epigenomes, nor of expressed cancer-cell transcriptomes, proteomes and epiproteomes, which include non-DNA-templated post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions and metabolites. Moreover, punctuated cancer cell macroevolution often culminates in macro-effects, which include epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMT), cancer cell polyploidies and even giant multinucleated cancer cells that drive cancer progression, therapy resistance and metastasis. All of this cancer-cell evolution competes in a molecular and cellular arms race with host immune cells and antibodies, as well as with the host tumor microenvironment. Empirically observed punctuated, multilevel and multiclonal cancer macroevolution, and the concomitant, rapid co-development of the host immune system and tumor microenvironment, can occur with the efficiency, speed and lethality of cancer that is enabled by evolved, active natural genetic engineering (NGE) mechanisms. NGE affects both vertical cancer-cell genomic inheritance and evolution towards therapy resistance and metastasis, as well as viral or cancer-cell exosome vector-driven horizontal gene transfers that contributes to cancer cell cooperation, or to transforming previously non-cancerous somatic cells into destabilized cancer cells during metastasis. In addition, externally driven, irreversible and transferable (EDIT) adaptations are exemplified by mitotically heritable, non-templated cancer cell epigenetics, and by mitotically heritable cancer-cell surface protein and lipid glycosylation, as important examples of fast time-scale molecular evolution mechanisms in which genes are followers, similar to evo-devo processes in organismal evolution.