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Related Concept Videos

Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving01:09

Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving

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The radiation pressure applied by an electromagnetic wave on a perfectly absorbing surface equals the energy density of the wave. The wave's momentum also gets transferred to the surface when an electromagnetic wave is entirely absorbed by it. The rate at which momentum is transmitted to an absorbing surface perpendicular to the propagation direction equals the force on the surface.
The average value of the rate of momentum transfer divided by the absorbing area represents the average force...
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Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. Mutations can be characterized in a number of different ways: whether and how they alter the amino acid sequence of the protein, whether they occur over a small or large area of DNA, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells.
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Radiation: Applications01:17

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The average temperature of Earth is the subject of much current discussion. Earth is in radiative contact with both the Sun and dark space; it receives almost all its energy from the radiation of the Sun and reflects some of it into outer space. Dark space is very cold, about 3 K, so Earth radiates energy into it. For instance, heat transfer occurs from soil and grasses, the rate of which can be so rapid that frost can occur on clear summer evenings, even in warm latitudes.
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There are three methods by which heat transfer can take place: conduction, convection, and radiation. Each method has unique and interesting characteristics, but all three have two things in common: they transfer heat solely because of a temperature difference; and the greater the temperature difference, the faster the heat transfer.
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An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the direction of propagation of the wave. This force occurs because electromagnetic waves contain and transport momentum. The force accounts for the wave's radiation pressure exerted on the object. Maxwell's prediction was confirmed in 1903 by Nichols and Hull by precisely measuring radiation pressures with a torsion balance. The measuring instrument had mirrors suspended from a fiber kept inside a glass container.
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Natural and Simulated Solar Radiation.

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The terrestrial solar spectrum varies due to factors like altitude and pollution, impacting UV exposure. Laboratory sunscreen testing may differ from real-world conditions due to spectral variations.

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Area of Science:

  • Atmospheric Physics and Optics
  • Photobiology
  • Radiometry

Background:

  • The extraterrestrial solar spectrum approximates a 5,800 K black body, with ultraviolet radiation comprising ~8% of total energy.
  • Terrestrial solar spectral irradiance is influenced by solar elevation, pollution, altitude, and cloud cover, affecting UV exposure.
  • Significant differences in annual erythemal UV exposure exist globally, with Australia receiving substantially more than Northern Europe.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To analyze the spectral profile of terrestrial solar irradiance and its influencing factors.
  • To compare UV exposure levels between different geographical regions.
  • To evaluate the utility of simulated sunlight in laboratory settings for sunscreen performance testing.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar spectral irradiance.
  • Review of factors affecting solar spectral irradiance magnitude and profile.
  • Comparison of ground-based erythemal UV measurements from global networks.
  • Evaluation of simulated sunlight (xenon arc lamp) spectral output against natural sunlight.

Main Results:

  • Terrestrial solar spectral irradiance peaks in the blue-green region (~500 nm), with diffuse components peaking in UVAI-blue.
  • Models are useful for studying UV climate variations in the absence of direct measurements.
  • Simulated sunlight closely matches natural sunlight below 350 nm but diverges at longer wavelengths.

Conclusions:

  • Variations in terrestrial solar spectral irradiance significantly affect UV exposure.
  • Discrepancies between natural and simulated solar spectra may explain differences in laboratory-measured versus real-world sunscreen performance (SPF).
  • Further research is needed to align simulated solar spectra with natural sunlight for accurate sunscreen efficacy testing.