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Electron Transport Chain: Complex III and IV01:43

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During the electron transport chain, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are first transferred to complexes I and II, respectively. These two complexes then transfer the electrons to ubiquinol, which carries them further to complex III. Complex III passes the electrons across the intermembrane space to Cyt c, which carries them further to complex IV. Complex IV donates electrons to oxygen and reduces it to water. As electrons pass through complexes I, III, and IV, the energy released aids the pumping...
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In the presence of oxidizing agents, phenols are oxidized to quinones. Quinones can be easily reduced back to phenols using mild reducing agents. The electron-donating hydroxyl group enhances the reactivity of the aromatic ring, enabling oxidation of the ring even in the absence of an α hydrogen.
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The electron transport chain or oxidative phosphorylation is an exothermic process in which free energy released during electron transfer reactions is coupled to ATP synthesis. This process is a significant source of energy in aerobic cells, and therefore inhibitors of the electron transport chain can be detrimental to the cell's metabolic processes.
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Symbiotic relationships are long-term, close interactions between individuals of different species that affect the distribution and abundance of those species. When a relationship is beneficial to both species, this is called mutualism. When the relationship is beneficial to one species but neither beneficial nor harmful to the other species, this is called commensalism. When one organism is harmed to benefit another, the relationship is known as parasitism. These types of relationships often...
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Oxidative Stress and Pathogenesis in Malaria.

Marilyn Vasquez1, Marisol Zuniga1, Ana Rodriguez1

  • 1Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States.

Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology
|December 17, 2021
PubMed
Summary

Malaria causes inflammation and oxidative stress from both host responses and parasite factors like heme. Restoring oxidative balance may prevent severe malaria complications.

Keywords:
Plasmodium falciparumPlasmodium vivaxcerebral malariamalariaoxidationoxidative stresspathogenesisreactive oxygen species

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Infectious Diseases
  • Biochemistry

Background:

  • Malaria is characterized by significant inflammation and oxidative stress.
  • Host immune responses, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by phagocytes and upregulation of enzymes like xanthine oxidase, are key features of malaria.
  • The parasite itself, through mechanisms like heme release from hemoglobin degradation, contributes to the host's oxidative burden.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the sources of oxidative stress in Plasmodium falciparum infection.
  • To discuss how these oxidative stress factors contribute to severe malaria pathologies.
  • To explore potential therapeutic strategies targeting oxidative balance.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of host and parasite factors contributing to oxidative stress in malaria.
  • Analysis of the role of reactive oxygen species and antioxidant enzymes in malaria pathogenesis.
  • Discussion of the impact of heme and inflammation on disease severity.

Main Results:

  • Both host-derived (e.g., phagocyte ROS, xanthine oxidase) and parasite-derived (e.g., heme) factors significantly increase oxidative stress during malaria.
  • Excessive oxidative stress contributes to inflammation, host cell damage, and severe malarial pathologies.
  • While parasites possess antioxidant defenses, the net oxidative burden can overwhelm host mechanisms.

Conclusions:

  • Oxidative stress is a critical factor in the pathogenesis of severe malaria.
  • Understanding the interplay between host and parasite oxidative mechanisms is crucial for developing effective treatments.
  • Therapeutics aimed at restoring oxidative balance hold promise for preventing lethal complications of malaria.