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Estimation of Titanium Dioxide Intake by Diet and Stool Assessment among US Healthy Adults
Christianto Putra1, Dhimiter Bello1, Katherine L Tucker1
1Department of Biomedical and Nutritional Sciences, Center for Population Health, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA.
Background:
Titanium dioxide (TiO2/E171) is used in foods primarily as a whitening agent. Little is known regarding TiO2 exposure in the United States.
Objectives:
To quantify stool TiO2 content among US adults and evaluate its association with estimated intake.
Methods:
Adults participated in phase 1 [three 24-h dietary recalls (DRs) and stool TiO2 measured from 3 matched samples (n = 52)] and/or phase 2 [tailored FFQ and stool TiO2 measured from 3 samples over 3 mo (n = 61)]. TiO2 in foods was estimated from a database, and concentration in 49 additional foods and 339 stool samples were quantified using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Associations between dietary and stool TiO2 were assessed by log-linear multivariable regression. USDA food groups (n = 49, servings/d) were related to stool TiO2 by stepwise regression.
Results:
TiO2 food content varied by brand. Mean TiO2 intake from three 24-h DRs [0.19 ± 0.31 mg/(kg body weight · d)] was lower than from the FFQ [0.30 ± 0.21 mg/(kg body weight · d)]. Dietary TiO2 was not predictive of stool TiO2, in phase 1 or phase 2, 10^(β) per 10 times higher dietary TiO2: 1.138 [10^(95% CI): 0.635, 2.037, P = 0.66] and 0.628 [10^(95% CI): 0.206, 1.910, P = 0.41], respectively. Food groups related to stool TiO2 were 1) milk desserts, sauces, and gravies [10^(β) per servings/d: 3.361; 10^(95% CI): 0.312, 36.163; P = 0.002] and 2) yeast breads [10^(β): 1.430; 10^(95% CI): 0.709, 2.884; P = 0.002] in phase 1 and 1) cream and cream substitutes [10^(β) = 10.925; 10^(95% CI): 1.952, 61.137; P = 0.01] and 2) milk and milk drinks [10^(β) = 0.306; 10^(95% CI): 0.086, 1.092, P = 0.07] in phase 2.
Conclusions:
Intake of certain foods was associated with higher stool TiO2 content. There is a need for valid estimation of TiO2 intakes via the improvement of a dietary assessment method and a TiO2 food composition database. Future research should assess whether high stool TiO2 content is related to adverse health outcomes.
