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Related Concept Videos

The Citric Acid Cycle: Output01:28

The Citric Acid Cycle: Output

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The citric acid cycle is termed an amphibolic pathway as it operates both anabolically and catabolically. The cyclic reactions balance the flux of the substrates to provide an optimal concentration of NADH and ATP to the cell.
Regulation of Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle is regulated in several ways, including feedback inhibition, regulation of enzyme activities, and associated anaplerotic or cataplerotic pathways.
The primary substrate of the TCA cycle—acetyl CoA—is...
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The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview01:37

The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview

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In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is the second stage of cellular respiration wherein molecules derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are oxidized into carbon dioxide and energy. This process is also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle as the first product of the cycle, citric acid, contains three carboxyl groups in its structure. Alternatively, this cycle is also referred to as the Krebs cycle, in honor of its discoverer Sir Hans Krebs.
The citric...
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The Citric Acid Cycle02:36

The Citric Acid Cycle

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The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, consists of several energy-generating reactions that yield one ATP molecule, three NADH molecules, one FADH2 molecule, and two CO2 molecules.
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Products of the Citric Acid Cycle00:53

Products of the Citric Acid Cycle

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The cells of most organisms—including plants and animals—obtain usable energy through aerobic respiration, the oxygen-requiring version of cellular respiration. Aerobic respiration consists of four major stages: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The third major stage, the citric acid cycle, is also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
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Nitriles to Carboxylic Acids: Hydrolysis01:08

Nitriles to Carboxylic Acids: Hydrolysis

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Nitriles undergo acid-catalyzed hydrolysis or base-catalyzed hydrolysis to form a carboxylic acid. These reactions proceed via an amide intermediate.
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Phase II Reactions: Acetylation Reactions01:24

Phase II Reactions: Acetylation Reactions

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Acetylation, a phase II biotransformation reaction, introduces an acetyl group to drugs or their metabolites. Acetyltransferase enzymes facilitate this reaction, which resembles α-amino acid conjugation due to the addition of a functional group to the drug molecule.
The substrates for acetylation are typically drugs or their metabolites with an amino, sulfonamide, or hydrazine functional group. Acetylation can occur at several points in the drug molecule, including primary, secondary, and...
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Related Experiment Video

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Fluorescence-based Monitoring of PAD4 Activity via a Pro-fluorescence Substrate Analog
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Highlighting the versatility of the citrullination process.

Joanna Sarnik1, Joanna Samanta Makowska1

  • 1Department of Rheumatology, Medical University of Lodz, ul. Zeromskiego 113, 90-549 Lodz, Poland.

Immunobiology
|June 6, 2022
PubMed
Summary

Protein citrullination, a post-translational modification, is vital for cellular processes but linked to autoimmune diseases. Research explores PADI inhibitors and environmental factors for therapeutic strategies targeting citrullination.

Keywords:
Citrullinated proteinsCitrullinationDeiminationPeptidylarginine deiminase

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Area of Science:

  • Biochemistry
  • Molecular Biology
  • Immunology

Background:

  • Protein citrullination is a post-translational modification crucial for cellular homeostasis.
  • Dysregulated citrullination is implicated in autoimmune and neoplastic disorders.
  • Citrullination influences epidermal function, reproduction, and neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the dual role of protein citrullination in health and disease.
  • To explore the therapeutic potential of targeting peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs).
  • To highlight the impact of environmental factors on citrullination.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review using PubMed, PubMed Central, and Google Scholar.
  • Inclusion of in vitro, in vivo (mouse models), and human postmortem tissue studies.
  • Keywords used: PAD, Peptidylarginine deiminases, citrullination, deimination.

Main Results:

  • Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are key enzymes in citrullination.
  • PAD inhibitors are under investigation for various diseases.
  • Environmental factors like smoking and air pollution can enhance citrullination.

Conclusions:

  • Protein citrullination has a significant role in disease pathogenesis.
  • Citrullination can serve as a prognostic marker and therapeutic target.
  • Understanding PAD regulation and environmental influences is crucial for developing treatments.