Action effect predictions in 'what', 'when', and 'whether' intentional actions

It has been proposed that intentional action can be separated into three major types depending on the nature of the action choice - what (selecting what to do), when (selecting when to act) and whether (to perform the action or not). While many theories on action control assume that intentional action involves the prediction of action effects, there has not been any attempt to compare the three types of intentional actions (what, when, whether) with respect to action-effect prediction. Here, we employ an action-effect prediction paradigm where participants select the action on every trial based on either the what (choosing between alternative actions), when (choosing to respond at different time points) or whether (choosing to perform an action or not) action components, and each action choice is followed by either a predicted (standard) or a mispredicted (deviant) tone. We found a significant P2 difference between standard/deviant tones reflecting the formation of action-effect predictions regardless of whether the action choice was based on the 'what', 'when' or 'whether' decision. Furthermore, our analysis revealed that this P2 difference for the prediction effect was not observable in non-action trials within the 'whether' condition, which suggests an action-specific prediction process.