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Related Concept Videos

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
Damage or functional impairment of β-cells inhibits insulin production, leading to diabetes. Diabetes treatment...
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Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery01:27

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery

269
Insulin preparations are categorized by their duration of action into short-acting and long-acting types. Two strategies are used to modify insulin's absorption and pharmacokinetic profile: slowing the absorption post-subcutaneous injection, or altering human insulin's amino acid sequence or protein structure. These changes retain the insulin's ability to bind to the insulin receptor, but alter its behavior in solution or after injection.
Short-acting insulins are divided into...
269
Glucagon-like Receptor Agonists01:24

Glucagon-like Receptor Agonists

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Incretins include glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), which stimulate insulin secretion post-meals. In type 2 diabetes, GIP's efficacy is reduced, making GLP-1 a viable drug target. GIP originates from preproGIP.
GLP-1, when administered in high doses intravenously, triggers insulin secretion, inhibits glucagon release, slows gastric emptying, reduces food intake, and restores normal insulin secretion. However, its rapid inactivation by...
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Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects01:16

Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects

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Insulin-replacement therapy usually includes both long-acting insulin (basal) and short-acting insulin (to cater to postprandial needs). In a diverse group of type 1 diabetes patients, the average daily insulin dose is typically 0.5-0.7 units/kg body weight. However, obese patients and pubertal adolescents may need more due to insulin resistance.
The basal dose constitutes about 40%-50% of the total daily dose, with the rest as premeal insulin. The mealtime insulin dose should mirror...
249
Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion01:27

Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion

1.4K
The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
Insulin and C-peptide are...
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Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose01:16

Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose

4.0K
Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
In addition to accelerating glucose uptake and utilization, insulin has...
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Updated: Sep 6, 2025

Insulin Injection and Hemolymph Extraction to Measure Insulin Sensitivity in Adult Drosophila melanogaster
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Unconventional insulins from predators and pathogens.

Sophie Heiden Laugesen1, Danny Hung-Chieh Chou2, Helena Safavi-Hemami3,4,5

  • 1Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Nature Chemical Biology
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Venomous snails use specialized insulins to hunt fish, revealing novel functions and unique characteristics of this hormone. These findings broaden our understanding of insulin

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Area of Science:

  • Biochemistry and Chemical Ecology
  • Structural Biology
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • Insulin and related peptides are vital hormones with diverse roles across the animal kingdom, including glucose homeostasis, neuronal development, and cognition.
  • The discovery of specialized insulins in venomous snails highlights their repurposed function in predation, specifically for capturing fish.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the discovery and diverse functions of repurposed insulins and other hormones in nature.
  • To explore the unique characteristics and biomedical applications of these unusual hormonal compounds.
  • To provide insights into the chemical ecology and structural biology of insulin in novel contexts.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review synthesizing findings on repurposed insulins and hormones.
  • Analysis of structural and functional characteristics of specialized insulins.
  • Exploration of the ecological roles and evolutionary origins of these compounds.

Main Results:

  • Venomous snails utilize unique insulins for predation, demonstrating a significant evolutionary repurposing of the hormone.
  • Insulins have been identified in other venomous predators and pathogenic viruses, indicating broader inter-organismal physiological manipulation.
  • These repurposed insulins possess distinct structural and functional properties compared to typical insulins.

Conclusions:

  • The study of repurposed insulins offers novel insights into hormone evolution, chemical ecology, and structural biology.
  • These findings underscore the adaptability of hormones like insulin for diverse and sometimes 'nefarious' biological functions.
  • Further research into these compounds may yield significant biomedical applications.