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Related Concept Videos

Reproductive Cloning01:27

Reproductive Cloning

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Reproductive cloning is the process of producing a genetically identical copy—a clone—of an entire organism. While clones can be produced by splitting an early embryo—similar to what happens naturally with identical twins—cloning of adult animals is usually done by a process called somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).
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In 1928, bacteriologist Frederick Griffith worked on a vaccine for pneumonia, which is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria. Griffith studied two pneumonia strains in mice: one pathogenic and one non-pathogenic. Only the pathogenic strain killed host mice.
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Bacterial RNA Polymerase00:43

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Unlike eukaryotes, bacteria use a single RNA Polymerase (RNAP) to transcribe all genes. The different subunits of bacterial RNAPhave distinct functions. The multisubunit structure of the bacterial RNAP helps the enzyme to maintain catalytic function, facilitate assembly, interact with DNA and RNA, and self-regulate its activity.
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Bacterial signaling can occur within bacteria (intracellular) or between bacteria (intercellular). At times, a group of bacteria behaves like a community. To achieve this, they engage in quorum sensing, the perception of higher cell density that causes changes in gene expression. Quorum sensing involves both extracellular and intracellular signaling. The signaling cascade starts with a molecule called an autoinducer (AI). Individual bacteria produce AIs that move out of the bacterial cell...
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RNA polymerase (RNAP) carries out DNA-dependent RNA synthesis in both bacteria and eukaryotes. Bacteria do not have a membrane-bound nucleus. So, transcription and translation occur simultaneously, on the same DNA template.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 29, 2026

Standardized Modular Assembly of Polycistronic Operons with Modular Cloning (MoClo) using the In-Cloning toolkit
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A bacterial clone synthesizing proinsulin.

L Villa-Komaroff, A Efstratiadis, S Broome

    Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
    |August 1, 1978
    PubMed
    Summary
    This summary is machine-generated.

    Researchers cloned rat preproinsulin complementary DNA (cDNA) in bacteria, creating a fused protein with both insulin and penicillinase. This advancement enables further study of insulin production and protein expression.

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    Area of Science:

    • Molecular Biology
    • Biotechnology
    • Recombinant DNA Technology

    Background:

    • Rat preproinsulin messenger RNA (mRNA) is a key precursor in insulin synthesis.
    • Cloning techniques are essential for studying gene expression and protein production.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To clone double-stranded cDNA copies of rat preproinsulin mRNA.
    • To express a fused protein containing rat insulin and bacterial penicillinase.

    Main Methods:

    • Utilized Escherichia coli chi1776 as a host for cloning.
    • Employed the Pst endonuclease site of plasmid pBR322 for insertion.
    • Used an oligo(dG)-oligo(dC) joining procedure to reconstruct the plasmid site.

    Main Results:

    • Successfully cloned rat preproinsulin cDNA.
    • One clone expressed a fused protein with both insulin and penicillinase antigenic determinants.
    • DNA sequencing confirmed the insulin region was in phase, linked by glycine residues.

    Conclusions:

    • Demonstrated the feasibility of cloning and expressing rat preproinsulin cDNA in E. coli.
    • The expressed fused protein provides a tool for studying insulin and penicillinase interactions.
    • This method offers potential for biotechnological applications in protein production.