Reduced inequality in ambient and household PM_2.5 exposure in China

The society has high concerns on the inequality that people are disproportionately exposed to ambient air pollution, but with more time spent indoors, the disparity in the total exposure considering both indoor and outdoor exposure has not been explored; and with the socioeconomical development and efforts in fighting against air pollution, it is unknown how the exposure inequality changed over time. Based on the city-level panel data, this study revealed the Concentration Index (C) in ambient PM_2.5 exposure inequality was positive, indicating the low-income group exposed to lower ambient PM_2.5; however, the total PM_2.5 exposure was negatively correlated with the income, showing a negative C value. The low-income population exposed to high PM_2.5 associated with larger contributions of indoor exposure from the residential emissions. The total PM_2.5 exposure caused 1.13 (0.63-1.73) million premature deaths in 2019, with only 14 % were high-income population. The toughest-ever air pollution countermeasures have reduced ambient PM_2.5 exposures effectively that, however, benefited the rich population more than the others. The transition to clean household energy sources significantly affected on indoor air quality improvements, as well as alleviation of ambient air pollution, resulting in notable reductions of the total PM_2.5 exposure and especially benefiting the low-income groups. The negative C values decreased from 2000 to 2019, indicating a significantly reducing trend in the total PM_2.5 exposure inequality over time.