Toward attojoule switching energy in logic transistors

Advances in the theory of semiconductors in the 1930s in addition to the purification of germanium and silicon crystals in the 1940s enabled the point-contact junction transistor in 1947 and initiated the era of semiconductor electronics. Gordon Moore postulated 18 years later that the number of components in an integrated circuit would double every 1 to 2 years with associated reductions in cost per transistor. Transistor density doubling through scaling-the decrease of component sizes-with each new process node continues today, albeit at a slower pace compared with historical rates of scaling. Transistor scaling has resulted in exponential gain in performance and energy efficiency of integrated circuits, which transformed computing from mainframes to personal computers and from mobile computing to cloud computing. Innovations in new materials, transistor structures, and lithographic technologies will enable further scaling. Monolithic 3D integration, design technology co-optimization, alternative switching mechanisms, and cryogenic operation could enable further transistor scaling and improved energy efficiency in the foreseeable future.