A missing theoretical element of online higher education student attrition, retention, and progress: a systematic...

Online learning technologies have facilitated higher education in many ways, making it more flexible and available for learners with multiple life and work responsibilities. Yet information regarding graduation rates suggests that the vast majority of online learners drop out. By systematically analysing 30 empirical studies published between 2009 and 2020, this paper aims to highlight factors critical for online students' attrition, retention, or progress, focusing on the adult student population. Four groups of factors influencing adult students' online learning were identified: (a) student factors, (b) course factors, (c) social factors, and (d) support factors. These four groups are analysed and discussed in light of selected theoretical models on student attrition, retention, and progress. The results show that student support remains a missing element in these models. Finally, recommendations based on the study findings are offered.