Related Experiment Video
Updated: Aug 16, 2025

Author Spotlight: Creating a Versatile Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Model Relevant for Both Male and Female Mice
Published on: October 13, 2023
Sex Hormones as Key Modulators of the Immune Response in Multiple Sclerosis: A Review
Federica Murgia1, Florianna Giagnoni1, Lorena Lorefice2
1Clinical Metabolomics Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy.
Background:
A variety of autoimmune diseases, including MS, amplify sex-based physiological differences in immunological responsiveness. Female MS patients experience pathophysiological changes during reproductive phases (pregnancy and menopause). Sex hormones can act on immune cells, potentially enabling them to modify MS risk, activity, and progression, and to play a role in treatment.
Methods:
Scientific papers (published between 1998 and 2021) were selected through PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science literature repositories. The search was limited to publications analyzing the hormonal profile of male and female MS patients during different life phases, in particular focusing on sex hormone treatment.
Results:
Both men and women with MS have lower testosterone levels compared to healthy controls. The levels of estrogens and progesterone increase during pregnancy and then rapidly decrease after delivery, possibly mediating an immune-stabilizing process. The literature examined herein evidences the neuroprotective effect of testosterone and estrogens in MS, supporting further examinations of their potential therapeutic uses.
Conclusions:
A correlation has been identified between sex hormones and MS clinical activity. The combination of disease-modifying therapies with estrogen or estrogen plus a progestin receptor modulator promoting myelin repair might represent an important strategy for MS treatment in the future.
More Related Videos
08:47Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Mice and Evaluation of the Disease-dependent Distribution of Immune Cells in Various Tissues
Published on: May 8, 2016
06:19Induction and Diverse Assessment Indicators of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis
Published on: September 9, 2022
Related Concept Videos
T Cell Types and Functions
Th1 cells stimulate dendritic cells to express necessary co-stimulatory molecules on their surfaces for...
Major Hormones and Their Functions
Oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland, plays a role in social bonding, childbirth, and...
Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Target Cell Response to Hormones
Notably, the cellular response can be regulated by altering the number of receptors expressed in the cell. For example, prolonged exposure to elevated hormone levels results in a gradual decline or down-regulation in the number of receptors for that specific hormone on the cell surface. Conversely, in response to low hormone levels, cells may use up-regulation, producing an...
Regulation of Hematopoietic Stem Cells
Autoimmune Disorders
Concept and Mechanism of Autoimmune Diseases
The immune...