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Related Concept Videos

The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes02:45

The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes

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In most organisms, sex is determined by the ratio of X and Y chromosomes. However, in some organisms, such as Drosophila and C.elegans, sex is determined by the ratio of the number of X chromosomes to the number of sets of autosomes. The Y chromosome in Drosophila is active but does not determine sex. It contains genes responsible for the production of sperms in adult flies.  
Normal male Drosophila has a ratio of one X chromosome to two sets of autosomes. In contrast, normal female...
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Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development01:30

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Social-emotional experiences and cultural influences play significant roles in shaping gender development. During middle childhood, from ages 6 to 11, peer groups become dominant in reinforcing gender norms. Children in this age group often align with same-gender peer groups, which actively encourage behaviors that conform to traditional gender roles. For instance, boys may be discouraged from engaging in activities perceived as feminine, reinforcing culturally dictated norms about masculinity...
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The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness02:19

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The Y chromosome is a sex chromosome found in several vertebrates and mammals, including humans. In addition to 22 pairs of autosomes, the human males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. In these organisms, the presence or absence of the Y chromosome determines the development of male traits.
Evolution
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Fundamental Attribution Error01:14

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According to some social psychologists, people tend to overemphasize internal factors as explanations—or attributions—for the behavior of other people. They tend to assume that the behavior of another person is a trait of that person, and to underestimate the power of the situation on the behavior of others. They tend to fail to recognize when the behavior of another is due to situational variables, and thus to the person’s state. This erroneous assumption is...
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Once data is collected from both the experimental and the control groups, a statistical analysis is conducted to find out if there are meaningful differences between the two groups. A statistical analysis determines how likely any difference found is due to chance (and thus not meaningful). In psychology, group differences are considered meaningful, or significant, if the odds that these differences occurred by chance alone are 5 percent or less. Stated another way, if we repeated this...
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A complementation test is a simple cross to identify whether the two mutations are located on the same gene or different genes. It was first performed by Edward Lewis in the 1940s while working on fruit flies. He developed the test to identify the location and arrangement of different mutations on chromosomes.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 6, 2025

Protocol for Studying Extinction of Conditioned Fear in Naturally Cycling Female Rats
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The gender citation gap: Why and how it matters.

Cary Wu1

  • 1Department of Sociology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Canadian Review of Sociology = Revue Canadienne De Sociologie
|March 17, 2023
PubMed
Summary

Academic women face career progression disadvantages, not research quality issues, leading to fewer citations and contributing to the gender pay gap in science. Addressing career advancement is key to closing these disparities.

Area of Science:

  • Bibliometrics
  • Gender Studies in Science
  • Academic Career Progression

Background:

  • Evidence suggests comparable citation rates for articles by men and women.
  • This challenges the notion that research quality or gender bias explains citation disparities.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate career progression disadvantages as the root cause of the gender citation gap.
  • To analyze the link between the gender citation gap and unequal pay in science.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of two datasets: over 130,000 highly cited scholars (1996-2020) and nearly 2,000 Canadian scholars (2014-2019).
  • Examined paper citation data and scholar salary information.

Main Results:

  • Papers by women receive more citations on average than those by men.

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  • The gender citation gap widens with career progression but narrows with research productivity and network size.
  • Higher citations correlate with higher pay, with citation gaps explaining a significant portion of the gender wage gap.

    • Conclusions:

    • Gender disparities in career progression are critical factors in the gender citation gap.
    • Closing the gender citation gap requires addressing systemic disadvantages in academic career advancement.
    • Interventions must focus on career progression to mitigate gender pay inequities in science.