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Related Concept Videos

Diversity of Antigen Receptors01:28

Diversity of Antigen Receptors

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Antigen receptors are essential components of the immune system crucial in defending the body against foreign invaders. These receptors are present on the surface of B and T cells, enabling them to recognize antigens and mount an appropriate immune response.
Before encountering any antigen, lymphocytes express these receptors. On B cells, the antigen receptor is a membrane-bound antibody molecule called BCR; on T cells, it is a T cell receptor or TCR. B and T cell receptors are composed of two...
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LTR Retrotransposons03:08

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LTR retrotransposons are class I transposable elements with long terminal repeats flanking an internal coding region. These elements are less abundant in mammals compared to other class I transposable elements. About 8 percent of human genomic DNA comprises LTR retrotransposons. Some of the common examples of LTR retrotransposons are Ty elements in yeast and Copia elements in Drosophila.
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Retroviruses

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Retroviruses and retrotransposons both insert copies of their genetic elements into the genome of the host cell. Thus, the viral genes are passed on when the host genome is replicated or translated. A typical retroviral DNA sequence contains 3-4 genes that encode the different proteins required for its structural assembly and function as a molecular parasite. This DNA is transcribed into a single mRNA, which is very similar in structure to conventional mRNAs, i.e., it is capped at the 5’...
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Exon Recombination02:32

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The evolution of new genes is critical for speciation. Exon recombination, also known as exon shuffling or domain shuffling, is an important means of new gene formation. It is observed across vertebrates, invertebrates, and in some plants such as potatoes and sunflowers. During exon recombination, exons from the same or different genes recombine and produce new exon-intron combinations, which might evolve into new genes. 
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Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes03:21

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While every living organism has a genome of some kind (be it RNA, or DNA), there is considerable variation in the sizes of these blueprints. One major factor that impacts genome size is whether the organism is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. In prokaryotes, the genome contains little to no non-coding sequence, such that genes are tightly clustered in groups or operons sequentially along the chromosome. Conversely, the genes in eukaryotes are punctuated by long stretches of non-coding sequence.
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Non-LTR Retrotransposons03:18

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As the name suggests, non-LTR retrotransposons lack the long terminal repeats characteristic of the LTR retrotransposons. Additionally, both LTR and non-LTR retrotransposons use distinct mechanisms of mobilization. Non-LTR retrotransposons are further divided into two classes - Long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs) and short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs), both of which occur abundantly in most mammals, including humans. Some of the active non-LTR retrotransposons in humans are L1...
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Diversity-Generating Retroelements in Prokaryotic Immunity.

Ilya S Belalov1, Arseniy A Sokolov1,2, Andrey V Letarov1

  • 1Laboratory of Microbial Viruses, Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology RC Biotechnology RAS, 117312 Moscow, Russia.

International Journal of Molecular Sciences
|March 29, 2023
PubMed
Summary

Prokaryotes may use diversity-generating retroelements to preemptively create defense proteins against unknown invaders, similar to how mammals generate immune defenses. This study identifies potential prokaryotic defense systems based on this principle.

Keywords:
adaptive immunitydiversity-generating retroelementsmetagenomicsprokaryotic immunitysomatic hypermutation

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Immunology
  • Bioinformatics

Background:

  • Adaptive immunity varies between prokaryotes (e.g., CRISPR-Cas) and mammals (antibodies, T-cell receptors).
  • Mammalian adaptive immunity relies on pre-generated diverse immune receptors for pathogen recognition.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To test the hypothesis that prokaryotes utilize diversity-generating retroelements for preemptive defense protein production.
  • To identify novel prokaryotic defense systems analogous to mammalian adaptive immunity.

Main Methods:

  • Bioinformatic analysis of prokaryotic genomes and genetic elements.
  • Identification and characterization of diversity-generating retroelement-associated systems.

Main Results:

  • Several candidate prokaryotic defense systems potentially utilizing diversity-generating retroelements were identified.
  • Evidence suggests a mechanism for generating diverse defense proteins in prokaryotes prior to encountering specific threats.

Conclusions:

  • Prokaryotes may employ diversity-generating retroelements as a strategy for adaptive immunity.
  • This finding expands our understanding of microbial defense mechanisms and evolutionary strategies.