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Related Concept Videos

Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles01:12

Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

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The connective tissues play a significant role in arranging the muscle fibers into a hierarchical structure that forms a complete muscle. Consider a muscle like the bicep brachii, commonly called the bicep. This muscle comprises thousands of muscle fibers enclosed by a protective layer of connective tissue called the endomysium. The endomysium is primarily composed of reticular fibers, a type of thin collagen fiber. It allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products at the fiber level,...
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Muscles for Facial Expressions01:14

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The craniofacial muscles are a collection of approximately 20 thin skeletal muscles situated beneath the skin of the face and scalp. These muscles, primarily responsible for the vast array of human facial expressions, originate from the bones or fibrous structures of the skull and extend outwards to connect with the skin. While most skeletal muscles in the body are enveloped in thick fascia, facial muscles generally have a more delicate fascial covering, with the buccinator muscle being a...
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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles01:13

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

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Skeletal muscle cells, also called muscle fibers, are distinctly elongated, multi-nucleated, slender biological units. They are packed with specialized structures designed to facilitate their primary function, which is contraction.
The muscle sarcolemma is a plasma membrane enclosing each muscle cell that conducts electrical signals called action potentials. The sarcolemma extends into the cell to form T-tubules, ensuring the neural impulses are uniformly distributed across the entire muscle...
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Muscles that Move the Head01:19

Muscles that Move the Head

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The muscles that move the head are a dynamic and complex group of structures that work together to facilitate a wide range of head movements, including rotation, flexion, extension, and lateral bending.
The bilateral sternocleidomastoid, or SCM, and the suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles are significant head flexors. The SCM muscles originate at the sternum and clavicle and attach to the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The SCM contracts bilaterally to bend the head forward, whereas...
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Muscle Contraction01:15

Muscle Contraction

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Naming Skeletal Muscles01:19

Naming Skeletal Muscles

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The naming of the approximately 700 muscles in the human body is based on a set of criteria designed to provide descriptive information about each muscle, making it easier to identify and remember them.
The key factors used in naming muscles include:
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 2, 2025

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy of the Sensory and Motor Brain Regions with Simultaneous Kinematic and EMG Monitoring During Motor Tasks
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Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy of the Sensory and Motor Brain Regions with Simultaneous Kinematic and EMG Monitoring During Motor Tasks

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Muscles or Movements? Representation in the Nascent Brain Sciences.

Zina B Ward1

  • 1Department of Philosophy, Florida State University, 151 Dodd Hall, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA. zward@fsu.edu.

Journal of the History of Biology
|April 19, 2023
PubMed
Summary

The brain

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • History of Science
  • Philosophy of Mind

Background:

  • The concept of the brain as a representational organ emerged in the 19th century.
  • Early debates focused on whether the motor cortex represents complex movements or fractional components.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To examine the evolving notions of brain representation during the "muscles versus movements" debate (c. 1873-1954).
  • To analyze the underlying epistemological disagreements influencing conceptions of representation.

Main Methods:

  • Historical analysis of scientific literature and debates.
  • Examination of key figures' contributions (Jackson, Walshe, Sherrington, Penfield).

Main Results:

  • Participants agreed on superficial aspects of representation but disagreed on its inferential role.
Keywords:
Inferential role semanticsJohn Hughlings JacksonMotor cortexMuscles versus movementsRepresentationScientific concepts

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  • Divergent epistemological commitments fueled conflicting views on representation.

    • Conclusions:

    • The "muscles versus movements" debate highlights fundamental disagreements in neuroscience regarding representation.
    • Epistemology significantly shapes how scientific representation is understood and evidenced.