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Types of Toxins

Types of Toxins

Humans continually engage with an environment rich in potentially harmful chemicals. These are introduced to our bodies through inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact. These chemicals exist in various forms, such as air and environmental pollutants, agricultural chemicals, organic solvents, and heavy metals.
Air pollutants, primarily gases, pose significant threats to respiratory health, leading to conditions like hypoxia, lung cancer, and in extreme cases, death.
Environmental pollutants like...

Halogenation of Alkenes

Halogenation of Alkenes

Halogenation is the addition of chlorine or bromine across the double bond in an alkene to yield a vicinal dihalide. The reaction occurs in the presence of inert and non-nucleophilic solvents, such as methylene chloride, chloroform, or carbon tetrachloride.
Consider the bromination of cyclopentene. Molecular bromine is polarized in the proximity of the π electrons of cyclopentene. An electrophilic bromine atom adds across the double bond, forming a cyclic bromonium ion intermediate.

Alkyl Halides

Alkyl Halides

Structural Properties
Alkyl halides are halogen-substituted alkanes wherein one or more hydrogen atoms of an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. The carbon atom in an alkyl halide is bonded to the halogen atom, which is sp3-hybridized and exhibits a tetrahedral shape.
Unlike alkyl halides, compounds in which a halogen atom is bonded to an sp2 -hybridized carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) are called vinyl halides. Whereas aryl...

α-Halogenation of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: Overview

α-Halogenation of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: Overview

Unlike aldehydes and ketones, carboxylic acids do not readily participate in α halogenation reactions via enols or enolate intermediates. However, α-halogenated acids are obtained through other methods. One of the approaches is the Hell–Volhard–Zelinsky (HVZ) reaction, wherein the carboxylic acid is treated with halogen in the presence of PBr3. It involves the conversion of acid to acid halide, which exists in equilibrium with its enol form. The enol attacks the...

Base-Promoted α-Halogenation of Aldehydes and Ketones

Base-Promoted α-Halogenation of Aldehydes and Ketones

α-Halogenation of aldehydes and ketones is a reaction involving the substitution of α hydrogens with halogens in the presence of a base. The reaction begins with the abstraction of α hydrogen by the base to produce a nucleophilic enolate ion. This intermediate undergoes a subsequent nucleophilic substitution with the halogen to produce a monohalogenated carbonyl compound. If the starting substrate has more than one α hydrogen, it is difficult to stop the reaction...

Radical Substitution: Halogenation of Alkanes and Alkyl Substituents

Radical Substitution: Halogenation of Alkanes and Alkyl Substituents

In the presence of heat or light, alkanes react with molecular halogens to form alkyl halides by a substitution reaction called radical halogenation. This reaction has three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination, as seen in the radical chlorination of methane to produce methyl chloride.
In the initiation step of the reaction, the chlorine molecule undergoes homolytic cleavage in the presence of light or heat, forming two highly reactive chlorine radicals. Propagation occurs in two...

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Updated: Jul 22, 2025

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Naturally Occurring Organohalogen Compounds-A Comprehensive Review.

Gordon W Gribble¹

¹Department of Chemistry, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA. ggribbleh@dartmouth.edu.

Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products

|July 24, 2023

Summary

This volume details 8,000 naturally occurring organohalogen compounds, found in marine and terrestrial life, and from abiotic processes. These compounds, primarily containing chlorine and bromine, are globally distributed and have diverse biological activities.

Keywords:

Alkaloids Bacteria Biodegradation Biohalogenation Biological activity Bromine Chlorine Extraterrestrial Fluorine Fungi Heterocycles Iodine Marine Natural function Organohalogen Peptides Phenols Terpenes Terrestrial

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Published on: April 18, 2019

Area of Science:

Environmental Chemistry
Natural Products Chemistry
Biochemistry

Background:

Organohalogen compounds are widespread in nature, originating from both biological and abiotic sources.
The documentation of these compounds has grown significantly, from fewer than 25 in 1968 to approximately 8,000 to date.
This volume represents the third in a trilogy comprehensively cataloging these natural products.

Approach:

Systematic documentation of naturally occurring organohalogen compounds.
Inclusion of chemical structures, biological activity, and natural functions.
Exploration of biohalogenation, biodegradation, and extraterrestrial sources.

Key Points:

Approximately 8,000 organohalogen compounds have been identified, predominantly containing chlorine or bromine.
These compounds are produced by a vast array of marine and terrestrial organisms, as well as abiotic processes.
Extraterrestrial sources of organohalogens have also been identified.

Conclusions:

Organohalogens are pervasive in the global ecosystem, with diverse origins and functions.
The study presents a comprehensive overview of known organohalogen compounds, their properties, and their roles.
Future outlook on organohalogen research, including biodegradation and potential applications, is discussed.