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Related Concept Videos

Acetals and Thioacetals as Protecting Groups for Aldehydes and Ketones01:24

Acetals and Thioacetals as Protecting Groups for Aldehydes and Ketones

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Acetals are formed by reacting two equivalents of alcohol with carbonyl compounds like aldehydes or ketones. Acetals are unaffected by bases, nucleophiles, oxidizing agents, and reducing agents. They serve as protecting groups for aldehydes and ketones. Acetals can be easily formed and also easily removed via mild acid hydrolysis.
In the presence of multiple functional groups, when selective reduction of one group over the other is desired, groups like aldehydes and ketones that form acetals...
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Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Friedel–Crafts Acylation of Benzene01:11

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The Friedel–Crafts acylation reactions involve the addition of an acyl group to an aromatic ring. These reactions proceed via electrophilic aromatic substitution by employing an acyl chloride and a Lewis acid catalyst such as aluminum chloride to form aryl ketone.
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Acidity of 1-Alkynes02:42

Acidity of 1-Alkynes

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The acidic strength of hydrocarbons follows the order: Alkynes > Alkenes > Alkanes. The strength of an acid is commonly expressed in units of pKa — the lower the pKa, the stronger the acid. Among the hydrocarbons, terminal alkynes have lower pKa values and are, therefore, more acidic. For example, the pKa values for ethane, ethene, and acetylene are 51, 44, and 25, respectively, as shown here.
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Preparation of Acid Anhydrides01:07

Preparation of Acid Anhydrides

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One of the methods for preparing symmetrical or unsymmetrical acid anhydrides involves the treatment of acid chlorides with the sodium salt of carboxylic acids. The reaction proceeds via a nucleophilic acyl substitution.
The carboxylate ion acts as a nucleophile that attacks the carbonyl carbon of the acid chloride to form a tetrahedral intermediate. Subsequently, the re-formation of the carbonyl group with the loss of the chloride ion as a leaving group leads to the formation of an acid...
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The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview01:37

The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview

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In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is the second stage of cellular respiration wherein molecules derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are oxidized into carbon dioxide and energy. This process is also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle as the first product of the cycle, citric acid, contains three carboxyl groups in its structure. Alternatively, this cycle is also referred to as the Krebs cycle, in honor of its discoverer Sir Hans Krebs.
The citric...
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Products of the Citric Acid Cycle00:53

Products of the Citric Acid Cycle

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The cells of most organisms—including plants and animals—obtain usable energy through aerobic respiration, the oxygen-requiring version of cellular respiration. Aerobic respiration consists of four major stages: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The third major stage, the citric acid cycle, is also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
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Updated: Jul 15, 2025

Highly Stereoselective Synthesis of 1,6-Ketoesters Mediated by Ionic Liquids: A Three-component Reaction Enabling Rapid Access to a New Class of Low Molecular Weight Gelators
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Acetyl Trialkyl Citrates.

Wilbur Johnson1, Wilma F Bergfeld2, Donald V Belsito2

  • 1Cosmetic Ingredient Review Senior Scientific Writer/Analyst.

International Journal of Toxicology
|September 30, 2023
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

The Expert Panel for Cosmetic Ingredient Safety confirmed that four citrate esters are safe for cosmetic use. Newly available studies support their continued safe application in products at specified concentrations.

Keywords:
Acetyl Trialkyl CitratesCosmeticsSafety

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Area of Science:

  • Cosmetic Science
  • Toxicology
  • Dermatology

Background:

  • The Expert Panel for Cosmetic Ingredient Safety previously assessed citrate esters in 2002.
  • Updated scientific literature and product usage information have become available since the original assessment.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To re-evaluate the safety of Acetyl Triethyl Citrate, Acetyl Tributyl Citrate, Acetyl Triethylhexyl Citrate, and Acetyl Trihexyl Citrate.
  • To confirm the safety of these cosmetic ingredients based on current data and usage patterns.

Main Methods:

  • Review of newly available scientific studies.
  • Analysis of updated information on cosmetic product types.
  • Evaluation of current concentrations of use for the specified ingredients.

Main Results:

  • The Expert Panel reviewed recent studies and updated usage information.
  • No safety concerns were identified for the reviewed citrate esters.

Conclusions:

  • Acetyl Triethyl Citrate, Acetyl Tributyl Citrate, Acetyl Triethylhexyl Citrate, and Acetyl Trihexyl Citrate are confirmed safe for cosmetic ingredient use.
  • The safety is affirmed within the described practices of use and concentration levels.