Cellulose nanofibers produced from spaghetti squash peel by deep eutectic solvents and ultrasonication

In this study, the cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) derived from spaghetti squash peel (SSP) were prepared using a novel approach involving deep eutectic solvent (DES) pretreatment coupled with ultrasonication. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed that the number of hydrogen bonds influences the viscosity and density of DES systems, and experimental viscosity (η_exp) confirmed consistency with the computed viscosity (η_MD) trends. After DES pretreatment and ultrasonication, the cellulose content of ChCl/oxalic acid (ChCl/OA) CNF (35.63%) and ChCl/formic acid (ChCl/FA) (32.46%) is higher than ChCl/Urea CNF (28.27%). The widths of ChCl/OA CNF, ChCl/FA CNF, and ChCl/Urea CNF were 19.83, 11.34, and 18.27 nm, respectively, showing a network-like fiber distribution. Compared with SSP (29.76%) and non-ultrasonic samples, the crystallinity index of ChCl/OA CNF, ChCl/FA CNF, and ChCl/Urea CNF was improved by ultrasonication. The thermal decomposition residue of ChCl/OA CNF (25.54%), ChCl/FA CNF (18.54%), and ChCl/Urea CNF (23.62%) was lower than that of SSP (29.57%). These results demonstrate that CNFs can be prepared from SSP via DES pretreatment combined with ultrasonication. The lowest viscosity observed in the formic acid DES group (η_exp of 18 mPa·s), the ChCl/FA CNF exhibits excellent stability (Zeta potential of -37.6 mV), which can provide a promising prospect for utilization in biomass by-products and applications in the materials field.