Cellular Alterations Due to Direct and Indirect Interaction of Nanomaterials with Nucleic Acids

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) represents the main reservoir of genetic information in the cells, which is why it is protected in the nucleus. Entry into the nucleus is, in general, difficult, as the nuclear membrane is a selective barrier to molecules longer than 40 kDa. However, in some cases, the size of certain nanoparticles (NPs) allows their internalization into the nucleus, thus causing a direct effect on the DNA structure. NPs can also induce indirect effects on DNA through reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. In this context, nanomaterials are emerging as a disruptive tool for the development of novel therapies in a broad range of biomedical fields; although their effect on cell viability is commonly studied, further interactions with DNA or indirect alterations triggered by the internalization of these materials are not always clarified, since the small size of these materials makes them perfectly suitable for interaction with subcellular structures, such as the nucleus. In this context, and using as a reference the predicted interactions presented in a computational model, we describe and discuss the observed direct and indirect effects of the implicated nanomaterials on DNA.