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Related Concept Videos

Mitochondrial Membranes01:45

Mitochondrial Membranes

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A single mitochondrion is a bean-shaped organelle enclosed by a double-membrane system. The outer membrane of mitochondria is smooth and contains many porins - the integral membrane transporters. Porins enable free diffusion of ions and small uncharged molecules through the outer mitochondrial membrane but limit the transport of molecules larger than 5000 Daltons. Further, the outer mitochondrial membrane forms a unique structure called membrane contact sites with other subcellular organelles,...
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Exosomes are stable, lipid bilayer-enclosed vesicles capable of crossing biological barriers. They can carry a wide range of molecules required for intercellular communication. Once exosomes are released from the cell where they originated, they enter a recipient cell through various pathways such as fusion, receptor-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis, and phagocytosis.
Stahl et al. discovered exosomes in 1983, but the exosomes were initially considered waste products released from the...
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The Inner Mitochondrial Membrane01:28

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The inner mitochondrial membrane is the primary site of ATP synthesis. The inner membrane domain that forms a smooth layer adjacent to the outer membrane is called the inner boundary membrane. This domain contains membrane transporters that drive metabolites in and out of the mitochondria.  In contrast, the inner membrane network that invaginates into the matrix space is called the cristae membrane. This domain accounts for principle mitochondrial function as it accommodates the protein...
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Mitochondrial precursors are translocated to the internal subcompartments via independent mechanisms involving distinct protein machineries called translocases.
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Autoimmune Disorders01:29

Autoimmune Disorders

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Autoimmune diseases are a group of disorders in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own cells, tissues, and organs. This results from an overactive immune response against substances and tissues normally present in the body. Let's delve into the concept and mechanism of autoimmune diseases from an immune system point of view, explore different causes and examples of such diseases, and discuss potential solutions.
Concept and Mechanism of Autoimmune Diseases
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Intralumenal Vesicles and Multivesicular Bodies01:38

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Intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) are small vesicles 50-80 nm in diameter formed during the maturation of early endosomes. A specialized endosome containing numerous ILVs is called a multivesicular body (MVB). ILVs contain internalized molecules such as antigens, nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites. Some of these molecules are released from the MVBs inside exosomes and are transported to other cells. Other MVBs contain molecules that are retained in the ILVs and are later degraded within the...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 29, 2025

Enzymatic Isolation of Skeletal Muscle Interstitial Extracellular Vesicles
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Mitochondrial extracellular vesicles, autoimmunity and myocarditis.

Damian N Di Florio1,2,3, Danielle J Beetler1,2,3, Elizabeth J McCabe1

  • 1Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States.

Frontiers in Immunology
|March 29, 2024
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Summary

Viral infections can trigger autoimmune diseases like myocarditis by releasing mitochondria from cells, activating immune responses. This review explores how viral-induced mitochondrial vesicles contribute to autoimmune conditions.

Keywords:
AIREautoimmune diseasecoxsackievirusextracellular vesiclesmitochondriamitochondrial-derived vesiclesmyocarditis

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Virology
  • Cardiology

Background:

  • Viral infections are implicated in autoimmune diseases, but mechanisms remain unclear.
  • Viruses like coxsackievirus B3 and SARS-CoV-2 target mitochondria, releasing them in vesicles that activate innate immunity via Toll-like receptor 4 and inflammasome pathways.
  • The heart's high mitochondrial density may explain cardiac autoimmunity following viral infections.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the role of viral infection in producing extracellular vesicles containing mitochondria and virus.
  • To summarize the literature on viral-induced mitochondrial release and the development of myocarditis.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of studies on viral infections, mitochondria, extracellular vesicles, and autoimmune responses.
  • Analysis of mechanisms involving Toll-like receptor 4 and inflammasome pathways.
  • Examination of evidence for autoantibodies against mitochondrial antigens in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy.

Main Results:

  • Viral infections release mitochondria within extracellular vesicles, activating innate immune responses.
  • Mitochondrial components trigger Toll-like receptor 4 and inflammasome activation.
  • Autoimmunity against cardiac myosin and mitochondrial antigens is observed in viral myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy.

Conclusions:

  • Viral infections can initiate autoimmune responses, particularly myocarditis, through mitochondrial release.
  • Defects in immune tolerance, such as AIRE gene variations, can exacerbate mitochondrial autoimmunity.
  • Extracellular vesicles containing virus and mitochondria are key players in viral-induced autoimmune disease development.