Evaluating aliphatic CF, CF2, and CF3 groups as vibrational Stark effect reporters

Given the extensive use of fluorination in molecular design, it is imperative to understand the solvation properties of fluorinated compounds and the impact of the C-F bond on electrostatic interactions. Vibrational spectroscopy can provide direct insights into these interactions by using the C-F bond stretching [v(C-F)] as an electric field probe through the vibrational Stark effect (VSE). In this work, we explore the VSE of the three basic patterns of aliphatic fluorination, i.e., mono-, di-, and trifluorination in CF, CF2, and CF3 groups, respectively, and compare their response to the well-studied aromatic v(C-F). Magnitudes (i.e., Stark tuning rates) and orientations of the difference dipole vectors of the v(C-F)-containing normal modes were determined using density functional theory and a molecular dynamics (MD)-assisted solvatochromic analysis of model compounds in solvents of varying polarity. We obtain Stark tuning rates of 0.2-0.8 cm-1/(MV/cm), with smallest and largest electric field sensitivities for CFaliphatic and CF3,aliphatic, respectively. While average electric fields of solvation were oriented along the main symmetry axis of the CFn, and thus along its static dipole, the Stark tuning rate vectors were tilted by up to 87° potentially enabling to map electrostatics in multiple dimensions. We discuss the influence of conformational heterogeneity on spectral shifts and point out the importance of multipolar and/or polarizable MD force fields to describe the electrostatics of fluorinated molecules. The implications of this work are of direct relevance for studies of fluorinated molecules as found in pharmaceuticals, fluorinated peptides, and proteins.