Crater depth prediction in granular collisions: A uniaxial compression model

Impact crater experiments in granular media traditionally involve loosely packed sand targets. However, this study investigates granular impact craters on both loosely and more tightly packed sand targets. We report experiments that consistently adhere to power-law scaling laws for diameter as a function of impacting energy, similar to those reported by other groups for their experiments utilizing both solid and granular projectiles. In contrast, we observe significant deviations in the depth versus energy power law predicted by previous models. To address this discrepancy, we introduce a physical model of uniaxial compression that explains how depth saturates in granular collisions. Furthermore, we present an energy balance alongside this model that describes the energy transfer mechanisms acting during crater formation. We found a better way to transfer vertical momentum to horizontal degrees of freedom as the impact surface compacts, resulting in shallow craters on compacted sandbox targets. Our results reveal depth-to-diameter aspect ratios from approximately 0.051 to 0.094, allowing us to interpret the shallowness of planetary craters at the light of the uniaxial compression mechanism proposed in this work.