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Updated: Jun 12, 2025

Measurements of Waves in a Wind-wave Tank Under Steady and Time-varying Wind Forcing
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Three-dimensional wave breaking.

M L McAllister1, S Draycott2, R Calvert3

  • 1Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. mark.mcallister@trinity.ox.ac.uk.

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Three-dimensional ocean wave breaking differs significantly from two-dimensional models. Increased directional spreading doubles breaking onset steepness and reveals new breaking regimes, challenging existing models for air-sea exchanges and offshore structures.

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Area of Science:

  • Fluid dynamics
  • Oceanography
  • Wave mechanics

Background:

  • Surface wave breaking is a key process in air-sea interactions.
  • Most research assumes two-dimensional waves, yet ocean waves are inherently three-dimensional.
  • The impact of three-dimensionality on wave breaking onset and characteristics remains poorly understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To experimentally investigate the effects of three-dimensionality on surface wave breaking.
  • To compare breaking characteristics of directionally spread waves with unidirectional waves.
  • To identify and characterize different breaking regimes in three-dimensional wave fields.

Main Methods:

  • Experimental wave tank studies were conducted to generate and analyze three-dimensional surface waves.
  • Wave steepness and breaking onset were measured under varying degrees of directional spreading.
  • Visual observations and analysis were used to identify distinct breaking regimes.

Main Results:

  • Breaking-onset steepness doubled in the most directionally spread waves compared to unidirectional waves.
  • Three distinct breaking regimes were identified: travelling-wave breaking, standing-wave breaking, and travelling-standing-wave breaking.
  • Three-dimensional waves can become significantly steeper than two-dimensional waves at breaking onset, with no apparent limit.

Conclusions:

  • Three-dimensionality fundamentally alters surface wave breaking onset and characteristics.
  • Existing two-dimensional models for wave breaking, energy dissipation, and air-sea exchange calculations may be inadequate for directionally spread seas.
  • Findings challenge current methodologies for designing offshore structures in complex sea states.