Advancing glider-based acoustic measurements of underwater-radiated ship noise

Ocean gliders are versatile and efficient passive acoustic monitoring platforms in remote marine environments, but few studies have examined their potential to monitor ship underwater noise. This study investigates a Slocum glider's capability to assess ship noise compared to the ability of fixed observers. Trials were conducted in shallow coastal inlets and deep bays in Newfoundland, Canada, using a glider, hydrophone array, and single-moored system. The study focused on (1) the glider's self-noise signature, (2) range-depth-dependent propagation loss (PL) models, and (3) identifying the location of the vessel to the glider using glider acoustic measurements. The primary contributors to the glider's self-noise were the buoyancy pump and rudder. The pitch-motor noise coincided with the buoyancy pump activation and did not contribute to the glider self-noise in our experiments. PL models showed that seafloor bathymetry and sound speed profiles significantly impacted estimates compared to models assuming flat and range-independent profiles. The glider's performance in recording ship noise was superior to that of other platforms. Using its hydrophones, the glider could identify the bearing from the vessel, although a third hydrophone would improve reliability and provide range. The findings demonstrate that gliders can characterize noise and enhance our understanding of ocean sound sources.