Advanced design of chemically modified electrodes for the electrochemical analysis of uric acid and xanthine

This study reviews advances in chemical detection methods applied to the metabolic products known as uric acid (UA) and xanthine (XA), which are residues of purine metabolism, with XA being an important intermediate preceding UA. UA and XA play crucial roles in maintaining physiological homeostasis in organisms. Chemical modification of electrodes is a widely used method to address the issues of poor sensitivity and selectivity encountered with bare electrodes. This article reviews various materials commonly used to modify electrode surfaces for the detection of uric acid and xanthine, focusing on properties that enhance electrocatalytic activity. We highlight recent trends in detecting these compounds using electrochemical methods with microfabricated devices and explore cutting-edge modification techniques involving novel nanomaterials, carbon derivatives, metallic nanoparticles, and polymers. The review includes a comparative analysis of these materials, addressing their strengths, limitations, and recent advancements, such as in carbon-based materials and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). Finally, we critically examine the challenges and future prospects of electrochemical detection of UA and XA in real samples, offering strategies to address these issues. The challenges associated with determination of UA and XA in real samples are also discussed.