Kinetic study and optimization of ginger mediated ochratoxin A reduction: An eco-friendly approach including toxicity...

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic secondary metabolite synthesized by certain fungal strains of Penicillium and Aspergillus and is characterized as a Group 2B carcinogen. OTA infiltrates food and feeds through diverse chains, posing health risks to humans and animals. Herein, seven distinct edible plant materials were screened for their OTA reduction activity. Amidst them, ginger juice in aqueous (2.5%, v/v) showed the highest OTA reduction (95.63%), following first-order reaction kinetics (R² = 0.92) with 0.72 d^-1 rate constant. OTA reduction activity of ginger juice was substantially compromised in the presence of salt (>2.5%) and temperature (>40 °C). The response surface methodology-based approach employing Box-Behnken experimental design revealed an integrated effect of temperature, pH, and salt concentrations on OTA reduction (27.44-100%) by ginger juice. In addition, heat treatment (100 °C) and dialysis (12-14 kDa cutoff) of ginger juice implied the inclusion of heat-stable small molecules in reducing OTA. Ginger-treated OTA ameliorated hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell viability and diminished reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels compared to native OTA. In zebrafish embryos, OTA-induced teratogenic effects, diminished hatching (22.91%), and elevated ROS levels leading to embryo mortality (75%) were significantly reversed by OTA treated with ginger, underscoring the curtailed toxicity of OTA-converted products by ginger.