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Related Concept Videos

Sanger Sequencing01:57

Sanger Sequencing

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DNA sequencing is a fundamental technique that is routinely used in the biological sciences. This method can be applied to a range of questions at different scales - from the sequencing of a cloned DNA fragment or the study of a mutation in a gene up to whole-genome sequencing. However, despite the widespread use of sequencing today, it was not until 1977 that Fredrick Sanger and his collaborators developed the chain-termination method to decode DNA sequences. It relies on the separation of a...
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Next-generation Sequencing03:00

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The first human genome sequencing project cost $2.7 billion and was declared complete in 2003, after 15 years of international cooperation and collaboration between several research teams and funding agencies. Today, with the advent of next-generation sequencing technologies, the cost and time of sequencing a human genome have dropped over 100 fold.
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Multi-species Conserved Sequences02:51

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Next-generation sequencing technologies have created large genomic databases of a variety of animals and plants. Ever since the human genome project was completed, scientists studied the genome of primates, mammals, and other phylogenetically distant living beings. Such large-scale  studies have provided new insights into the evolutionary relationship between organisms.
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In the same year as the discovery of the Sanger sequencing method, another group of scientists, Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert, demonstrated their chemical-cleavage method for DNA sequencing. The Maxam-Gilbert method relies on using different chemicals that can cleave the DNA sequence at specific sites, the separation of resulting DNA fragments of variable size using electrophoresis, and deciphering the DNA sequence from the resulting gel bands.
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RNA-seq03:21

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RNA sequencing, or RNA-Seq, is a high-throughput sequencing technology used to study the transcriptome of a cell. Transcriptomics helps to interpret the functional elements of a genome and identify the molecular constituents of an organism. Additionally, it also helps in understanding the development of an organism and the occurrence of diseases. 
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Genome Annotation and Assembly03:36

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The genome refers to all of the genetic material in an organism. It can range from a few million base pairs in microbial cells to several billion base pairs in many eukaryotic organisms. Genome assembly refers to the process of taking the DNA sequencing data and putting it all back together in a correct order to create a close representation of the original genome. This is followed by the identification of functional elements on the newly assembled genome, a process called genome annotation.
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Updated: Jun 7, 2025

Tick Microbiome Characterization by Next-Generation 16S rRNA Amplicon Sequencing
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NCBI RefSeq: reference sequence standards through 25 years of curation and annotation.

Tamara Goldfarb1, Vamsi K Kodali1, Shashikant Pujar1

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The Reference Sequence (RefSeq) database provides essential genomic, transcript, and protein data for biological research. It is continuously updated with high-quality annotations to support gene function discovery and comparative genomics across diverse organisms.

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Area of Science:

  • Genomics
  • Bioinformatics
  • Molecular Biology

Background:

  • Reference sequences and annotations are fundamental for organism identification and understanding gene, transcript, and protein functions.
  • Data interpretation from transcriptomics, proteomics, and sequence variation relies heavily on accurate reference gene annotations.
  • These annotations drive biomedical discoveries by elucidating gene function and disease mechanisms.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To summarize the current status of the eukaryotic, prokaryotic, and viral RefSeq resources.
  • To highlight advancements in eukaryotic annotation and increased taxonomic representation.
  • To discuss the impact of these updates on comparative genomics.

Main Methods:

  • Leveraging automatic processes and expert curation to build a robust set of reference sequences.
  • Refining annotation and quality control processes.
  • Utilizing high-quality genomes from advanced sequencing technologies and RNA-Seq data.

Main Results:

  • Production of high-quality annotated genomes and ortholog predictions across a wider range of organisms.
  • Enhanced accessibility of RefSeq products through multiple NCBI resources.
  • Focus on eukaryotic annotation and expanded taxonomic coverage.

Conclusions:

  • The RefSeq resource provides a high-quality, comprehensive foundation for diverse biological research.
  • Ongoing improvements in annotation and data quality enhance its utility for comparative genomics.
  • The resource is crucial for advancing our understanding of gene function and biological systems.