The postmenopausal bladder

Following the last menstrual period, a woman's "genital organs are sealed with the signet of sterility" (De L'Isère, 1850) and the ensuing hypo-oestrogenism, a consequence of ovarian failure, results in major metabolic disturbances. These include osteoporosis, thin skin, and an increased propensity for myocardial ischaemia. In association with these changes, lower urinary tract dysfunction occurs, also related to lower levels of circulating oestrogen.