Polyamines: The valuable bio-stimulants and endogenous signaling molecules for plant development and stress response

Polyamines (PAs) are nitrogenous and polycationic compounds containing more than two amine residues. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that cellular PA homeostasis plays a key role in various developmental and physiological processes. The PA balance, which may be affected by many environmental factors, is finely maintained by the pathways of PA biosynthesis and degradation (catabolism). In this review, the advances in PA transport and distribution and their roles in plants were summarized and discussed. In addition, the interplay between PAs and phytohormones, NO, and H₂O₂ were detailed during plant growth, senescence, fruit repining, as well as response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Moreover, it was elucidated how environmental signals such as light, temperature, and humidity modulate PA accumulation during plant development. Notably, PA has been shown to exert a potential role in shaping the domestication of rice. The present review comprehensively summarizes these latest advances, highlighting the importance of PAs as endogenous signaling molecules in plants, and as well proposes future perspectives on PA research.