Towards extracellular vesicle delivery systems for tissue regeneration: material design at the molecular level

The discovery and development of extracellular vesicles in tissue engineering have shown great potential for tissue regenerative therapies. However, their vesicle nature requires dosage-dependent administration and efficient interactions with recipient cells. Researchers have resorted to biomaterials for localized and sustained delivery of extracellular vesicles to the targeted cells, but not much emphasis has been paid on the design of the materials, which deeply impacts their molecular interactions with the loaded extracellular vesicles and subsequent delivery. Therefore, we present in this review a comprehensive survey of extracellular vesicle delivery systems from the viewpoint of material design at the molecular level. We start with general requirements of the materials and delve into different properties of delivery systems as a result of different designs, from material selections to processing strategies. Based on these differences, we analyzed the performance of extracellular vesicle delivery and tissue regeneration in representative studies. In light of the current missing links within the relationship of material structures, physicochemical properties and delivery performances, we provide perspectives on the interactions of materials and extracellular vesicles and the possible extension of materials. This review aims to be a strategic enlightenment for the future design of extracellular vesicle delivery systems to facilitate their translation from basic science to clinical applications.