Lesser-Known Cyanotoxins: A Comprehensive Review of Their Health and Environmental Impacts

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, are a diverse phylum of photosynthetic, Gram-negative bacteria and one of the largest microbial taxa. These organisms produce cyanotoxins, which are secondary metabolites that can have significant impacts on both human health and the environment. While toxins like Microcystins and Cylindrospermopsins are well-documented and have been extensively studied, other cyanotoxins, including those produced by Lyngbya and Nostoc, remain underexplored. These lesser-known toxins can cause various health issues in humans, including neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and dermatotoxicity, each through distinct mechanisms. Moreover, recent studies have shown that cyanobacteria can be aerosolized and transmitted through the air over long distances, providing an additional route for human exposure to their harmful effects. However, it remains an area that requires much more investigation to accurately assess the health risks and develop appropriate public health guidelines. In addition to direct exposure to toxins, cyanobacteria can lead to harmful algal blooms, which pose further risks to human and wildlife health, and are a global concern. There is limited knowledge about these lesser-known cyanotoxins, highlighting the need for further research to understand their clinical manifestations and improve society's preparedness for the associated health risks. This work aims to review the existing literature on these underexplored cyanotoxins, which are associated with human intoxication, elucidate their clinical relevance, address significant challenges in cyanobacterial research, and provide guidance on mitigating their adverse effects.