Ceramides increase mitochondrial permeabilization to trigger mtDNA-dependent inflammation in astrocytes during brain...

The brain is rich in lipids, and disorders or abnormalities in lipid metabolism can induce neurotoxicity. Ceramides are the central intermediates of sphingolipid metabolism. This study was designed to investigate the potential lipotoxicity of ceramides in brain ischemia. First, a pseudo-targeted lipidomics analysis of plasma samples from stroke patients found significantly elevated levels of long-chain ceramides. A similar observation was made in mice subjected to permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) surgery. In cultured cells, it was found that the altered ceramides were mainly derived from astrocytes via de novo pathway, and SPTLC2 was a key regulator because Sptlc2 knockdown largely blocked ceramide production. Ceramides induced astrocyte activation and triggered oxidative stress to impair mitochondrial homeostasis by increasing mitochondrial permeabilization. Moreover, ceramides triggered the formation of voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) oligomers in the mitochondrial outer membrane, through which mtDNA was released into the cytoplasm. Similar to oxygen and glucose depletion treatment, ceramides also increased cGAS activity and STING protein expression. However, this activity was diminished in the presence of the mitochondrial ROS scavenger SKQ1, indicating the involvement of oxidative stress in ceramide action. By facilitating cGAS/STING signaling cascades, ceramides resultantly induced interferon response to aggravate inflammatory damage in the ischemic brain. To address the impact of ceramides on brain ischemic injury in vivo, ceramide generation was blocked in the brain by injection of AAV9-Sptlc2 shRNA in pMCAO mice. Sptlc2 knockdown in the brain reduced ceramide generation and attenuated brain ischemic damage with astrocyte inactivation. As expected, Sptlc2 deficiency effectively blocked cGAS/STING pathway-dependent interferon responses. Together, these findings suggest a new therapeutic strategy for pharmacological intervention to attenuate neuroinflammation.