Personalized drug-loaded 3D-printed scaffolds for periodontal bone repair: structural, mechanical, and controlled...

This study aimed to develop and evaluate personalized 3D-printed scaffolds (SCs) loaded with indomethacin (IND, a model non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) for periodontal bone regeneration, using polycaprolactone (PCL), hydroxyapatite (HA), and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a SC matrix. SCs were fabricated via fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing, following the production of hot melt extruded (HME) filaments (FILs) at varying PEG and IND concentrations. The structural and physicochemical properties were assessed through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. Results indicated successful incorporation of PEG and HA within the PCL matrix and complete amorphous dispersion of IND within SCs, with the exception of minimal recrystallization in systems with high IND loading. Mechanical testing of FILs and SCs revealed that the first had the desired properties for FDM-3D printing while the second were suitable for application into the alveolar bone socket. In vitro drug release studies demonstrated a biphasic release profile, with initial rapid release followed by sustained delivery. SCs with higher PEG content exhibited more uniform and faster release than those with lower PEG. Stability tests over three months showed that all SCs maintained IND in its amorphous state, with FDM-printed SCs displaying enhanced stability compared to FILs. The findings of this study suggest that the proposed IND-loaded SCs provide controlled, localized drug release with structural properties tailored for periodontal applications, making them a promising low-cost approach to treat periodontal bone defects.