Edible batteries for biomedical innovation: advances, challenges, and future perspectives

In biomedical applications, the demand for advanced electronic devices that enable precise monitoring, targeted therapies, and non-invasive diagnostic tools is steadily increasing to enhance patient outcomes. Edible batteries seamlessly combine biocompatibility, energy efficiency, and safe ingestion, offering a reliable power source for in vivo devices and opening up new possibilities for innovative healthcare solutions. Beyond supporting precise monitoring and advanced therapeutic interventions, edible batteries overcome the inherent limitations of traditional batteries, such as rigidity, toxicity, and environmental concerns. Their unique properties make them essential for advancing precision medicine and promoting sustainable biomedical technologies. This transformative approach marks a significant leap in the evolution of battery technology for biomedical engineering applications. This review systematically categorizes edible batteries into various types, including lithium-based, sodium-based, magnesium-based, zinc-based, and other emerging systems. It further highlights key distinctions in material selection, structural design, and fabrication techniques, examining their influence on electrochemical performance and suitability for biomedical applications. Additionally, the review identifies existing challenges and outlines prospective research directions, paving the way for further advancements in this innovative field.