A decade of toxicity research on sea urchins: A review

Sea urchins have been used extensively in toxicity studies worldwide. In this review, toxicity studies that used sea urchins as the organism of choice during the last decade (from 2014 to 2023) were assessed. The selected articles were analysed for the following main points: (i) the world regions where sea urchins are predominantly utilized in toxicological studies, (ii) the sea urchin species most frequently employed, (iii) the most frequently used toxicological assays, and (iv) the chemical under examination. The results indicate that the scientists in Europe most often decide to work with this organism. Specifically, sea urchins were sampled from the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Atlantic coast of Spain and Portugal for the toxicity studies. The most frequently selected species of sea urchin is Paracentrotus lividus, followed by Arbacia lixula and Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Furthermore, the toxicity experimental method that is most often applied is the embryotoxicity that includes a version of the sea urchin embryo-larval development test endpoints. Currently metals are the most frequently researched pollutant of this species as target organism, followed by environmental samples (e.g. sediment or wastewaters), plastics and nanoparticles (metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, silicate nanoparticles, polystyrene nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes). At the end, the obtained results were discussed and recommendations for further work with sea urchins in toxicological studies were proposed.