Mycotoxins and secondary metabolites from fruit postharvest pathogenic Penicillium species

Postharvest fruits are highly susceptible to infections by Penicillium species, particularly Penicillium expansum, P. italicum, and P. digitatum. These infections accelerate fruit spoilage and drive the biosynthesis of hazardous secondary metabolites, including mycotoxins that threaten food safety. However, current understanding of the secondary metabolite profiles, toxicity mechanisms, and detection and detoxification methods of key mycotoxins from fruit-pathogenic Penicillium species is still limited. Through systematic literature analysis, this study catalogs 74 secondary metabolites from these Penicillium species, emphasizing patulin, ochratoxin A, and citrinin as priority mycotoxins. Toxicological evaluations reveal their severe health impacts, including multi-organ toxicity and carcinogenicity. The paper further assesses advanced detection techniques and detoxification strategies, proposing an integrated framework for mycotoxin monitoring and mitigation. By elucidating metabolite profiles, toxicity mechanisms, and intervention strategies, this work enhances the understanding of the metabolic diversity of fruit-pathogenic Penicillium species, strengthens mycotoxin surveillance networks, and supports improved fruit quality and safety control.