Biomedical applications of seashells and seashell-reinforced polymer composites: a review of recent advances

The urgent need for alternative strategies for organ transplantation, replacement or regeneration of damaged tissues has been contributing in remarkable advances in biomaterials for various biomedical applications including tissue engineering. Seashells (SS), which are naturally occurring, available in large quantities and cost-free, have been drawn widespread attention recently for their potential use in the biomedical field. Besides, the unique properties of SS in terms of their biocompatibility, osteointegration, ease of manipulation, and adjustable mechanical behaviors make them a highly appropriate biomaterial for biomedicine, particularly in engineering bone. Compared to chemically synthesized hydroxyapatite (HA), SS-extracted HA can be perfectly matched the composition of bone minerals. Furthermore, polymer-based composites have numerous uses in various biomedical fields such as tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Several approaches and materials have been used to enhance the properties of biomedical field-based polymers. One such approach is the reinforcement of polymers using particles from either natural or synthetic sources including metals and ceramics. Nevertheless, the availability of natural materials with comparable properties to those found in the human body promotes the creation of better composites in terms of biocompatibility and affordability. The current review highlights recent studies regarding the development of SS-derived biomaterials as well as SS-reinforced polymer composites for orthopedics, orthodontics, and other biomedical applications. Beside to their key role in enhancing polymer properties, the use of SS particles has the benefit of lowering the cost of the resulting biocomposite and mitigate the deleterious influence of a massive amount of by-product waste on the environment.