Role of Non-Coding RNAs in Regulating PD-L1 Expression in Breast Cancer: Emerging Insights and Implications

The initiation and progression of breast cancer generally involve complex immune regulatory mechanisms, with increased expression of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) as an essential factor for immune evasion and the formation of a tumor-promoting immune microenvironment. Emerging evidence underscores the regulatory role of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in modulating PD-L1 expression, influencing immune evasion, tumorigenesis, and therapy resistance in breast cancer. Therefore, it is crucial further to clarify alternative regula-tory mechanisms that control PD-L1 expression. The variations in PD-L1 expression among different breast cancer subtypes and the mechanisms by which ncRNAs regulate the expres-sion of PD-L1 are delineated. This study explores the potential and challenges of combining ncRNA-based therapy with PD-L1 inhibitors, offering insights into PD-L1 regulation and per-sonalized treatment strategies in breast cancer.