Magnetic-based tissue engineering: principles, applications, and future prospects in biofabrication

Magnetic-based tissue engineering (MagTE) is a rapidly advancing interdisciplinary field that integrates magnetic materials and external magnetic fields with tissue engineering principles to manipulate cells, biomaterials, and biological environments for developing functional tissue substitutes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of MagTE, covering its fundamentals, applications, and future directions within the biofabrication domain. The magnetic properties of paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and superparamagnetic materials are discussed, along with mechanisms of magnetic actuation through forces and torques. MagTE applications are categorized into cell manipulation and stimulation. Direct and indirect manipulation techniques also enable precise control of cell alignment, patterning, and assembly into complex three-dimensional structures, such as cell sheets, spheroids, and organoids. Stimulation approaches-mechanical, thermal, electrical, and biochemical-exploit interactions between magnetic particles and external fields to elicit specific physiological responses and support tissue regeneration. We then conclude by addressing the current limitations of MagTE and proposing strategies to overcome these challenges.