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Intermolecular Forces03:13

Intermolecular Forces

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Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions (attractive or repulsive) between charged species (permanent, partial, or temporary charges) and exist with varying strengths between ions, polar, nonpolar, and neutral molecules. The different types of intermolecular forces are ion–dipole, dipole–dipole, hydrogen bonds, and dispersion; among these, dipole–dipole, hydrogen...
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Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the alkali metals are unusually low for metals and decrease going down the group, while the density increases going down the group with the exception of potassium (Table 1).
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A permanent electric dipole orients itself along an external electric field. This rotation can be quantified by defining the potential energy because the external torque does work in rotating it. Then, the potential energy is minimum at the parallel configuration and maximum at the antiparallel configuration. While the former is a stable equilibrium, the latter is an unstable equilibrium.
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Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity. 
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Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence shell, and an anion (a negative ion) forms when a neutral atom gains one or more electrons in its valence shell. Compounds composed of ions are called ionic compounds (or salts), and their constituent ions are held together by ionic bonds: electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged cations and anions. 
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Determination of Thermodynamic Properties of Alkaline Earth-liquid Metal Alloys Using the Electromotive Force Technique
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Pressure-driven electronegativity inversion in alkali liquids.

Chenxu Han1, Hongxiang Zong1, Xiangdong Ding1

  • 1State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, China.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|June 24, 2025
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study reveals a novel three-state liquid-liquid phase transition (LLPT) in K-Rb alloys, driven by pressure and electronic changes. This continuous transition offers new insights into phase behavior beyond traditional two-state models.

Keywords:
electrideelectronegativity inversionliquid–liquid phase transitionthree-state system

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Condensed Matter Physics
  • Physical Chemistry

Background:

  • Liquid-liquid phase transitions (LLPTs) are traditionally viewed as two-state systems driven by structural changes.
  • Understanding continuous LLPTs is crucial for materials science and condensed matter physics.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate a continuous liquid-liquid phase transition (LLPT) in a K-Rb binary alloy.
  • To characterize the unique three-state system behavior observed during the transition.

Main Methods:

  • Experimental observation of LLPT in K-Rb binary alloy under varying pressure.
  • Analysis of optical, thermodynamic, and dynamic properties during the transition.

Main Results:

  • Observed a continuous LLPT with electronegativity inversion in K-Rb alloy, exhibiting three-state behavior.
  • Identified a pressure-induced sequence from s-metal to electride to d-metal states.
  • Documented valence reversal in Potassium and Rubidium, with two anomalies in material properties.

Conclusions:

  • The K-Rb alloy exhibits a unique three-state continuous LLPT, challenging the conventional two-state model.
  • Pressure-driven reordering of electronic orbital energies drives this novel transition mechanism.
  • This three-state system behavior may be prevalent in other alkali and alkaline earth metal liquids.