"Love-hate relationships" between antibiotics and marine algae: A review

Due to the long-term, large-scale, and even abusive use of antibiotics in livestock, and aquaculture, it has led to widespread and low-concentration existence in aquatic environments, resulting in potentially huge ecological risks. We reviewed the studies on the effects of antibiotics on marine primary producers including macroalgae and microalgae in the past three decades, providing an overview of the occurrence and fate of antibiotics, the potential toxicological mechanism on typical algae, and the removal by algae. Owing to the biodiversity and geographical distribution of marine algae, it is feasible to use algae for biodegradation in the future, aiming to reduce the concentration of antibiotics in seawater. Furthermore, it is important to note the necessity of supervision of commercial algae under potential antibiotic stress. This review summarizes the knowledge gap and future prospects of the complex interaction of antibiotics and algae at the theoretical research and application.