Learning arithmetic strategies: The roles of individual and contextual factors

The present chapter explores the processes of acquisition and development of arithmetic problem-solving strategies in school-age children, focusing on how the interplay of individual and contextual factors fosters proficiency and flexibility. Individual factors include domain-specific competencies such as number knowledge and arithmetic fluency, alongside domain-general processes like working memory and metacognition, which underpin strategy selection, planning, and execution. These factors are analyzed from a developmental perspective to illustrate their impact at different age periods. The contextual influences on arithmetic development are framed through Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory, emphasizing interactions within family, school, and broader societal environments. Within the microsystem level, we highlight the roles of parents, siblings, teachers, and peers, with special attention to how socioeconomic factors shape access to resources and educational opportunities. At the macrosystem level, this chapter examines curricular approaches, particularly contrasting traditional efficiency-based instructions with flexible strategy-based methods. Emerging practices, such as Number Talks, are discussed as instructional practices aimed to promote conceptual understanding and diverse problem-solving strategies. Combining insights from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and educational practices, the chapter underscores the complexity of arithmetic strategy development and the need for interdisciplinary research. By identifying key influences and providing examples of effective instructional approaches, this chapter aims to systematize the available evidence regarding how arithmetic skills emerge and develop, bridging gaps between theory and practice to inform educational policies.