Multifunctional Biomedical Devices with Closed-Loop Systems for Precision Therapy

Closed-loop control systems have emerged as transformative tools in precision therapy, enabling real-time monitoring of patient's physiological conditions and automatically adjusting treatments based on direct feedback. By seamlessly integrating sensing feedback and on-demand therapeutic interventions, these systems offer enhanced accuracy, adaptability, and effectiveness, while reducing the risks of over- or under-treatment. This review categorizes closed-loop devices into two major types: self-sustained and externally triggered. It first examines the stimuli-responsive materials and mechanisms essential for self-sustained systems, which autonomously deliver therapeutic agents in response to physiological or environmental cues without external intervention, an approach that is particularly advantageous for managing chronic diseases. The discussion then focuses on recent developments in integrated bioelectronics as a platform for externally triggered closed-loop systems, summarising key innovations in biosensing technologies, personalized therapeutic strategies, and data-driven control algorithms. Finally, the review outlines current challenges and highlights potential research avenues, illustrating the transformative potential of closed-loop systems in a range of precision therapies, including diabetes management and neurostimulation.