Advances in the biosynthesis of β-carotene and its derivatives in yeast

β-Carotene and its derivatives have been gaining huge interest due to its applications as food supplements, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, pigments, etc. Owing to their high values, sustainable microbial production has been a heated research topic. Traditional production methods, such as plant extraction and chemical synthesis, face challenges in scalability, cost, and environmental impact. With advances in synthetic biology, yeast-based biosynthesis has emerged as a promising alternative. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent progress in the metabolic engineering strategies and fermentation optimization approaches of yeast, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Yarrowia lipolytica, for the production of β-carotene and its derivatives. In contrast to previous reviews, this work emphasizes the shared biosynthetic logic underlying structurally related derivatives, classifying them into two major groups: xanthophylls (canthaxanthin, zeaxanthin, astaxanthin, and violaxanthin) and apocarotenoids (crocetin, retinol, β-ionone, β-cyclocitral, and strigolactones). Representative cases and transferable engineering/fermentation strategies are highlighted. Advantages and limitations of yeast species as production hosts are thoroughly compared, and potential strategies to improve the production are discussed. Future work may focus on broadening product diversity in different yeast hosts and enhancing biosynthetic efficiency for a more sustainable production.