Mapping the global distribution of Mycoplasma bovis infections in cattle (2000-2024): A geospatial modeling analysis

Mycoplasma bovis poses a global threat to cattle health, causing severe respiratory, mastitis, and arthritis syndromes with substantial economic losses. However, its worldwide epidemiology remains poorly characterized due to methodological inconsistencies and fragmented regional studies. This study presents the first comprehensive geospatial analysis of M. bovis infections across 31 countries (2000-2024), integrating data from 61 studies through meta-analysis, time series modeling, and geographic information system mapping. The global pooled prevalence of M. bovis infections was estimated at 32%, with significant regional variations. The Eastern Mediterranean showed the highest adjusted prevalence (43.21%), while Southeast Asia had the lowest (2.13%). Diagnostic methods had a major effect on prevalence estimates, with MALDI-TOF MS showing the highest sensitivity (40.21%), followed by ELISA (37.64%), while culture-based techniques consistently underestimated infection rates (17.39%). Host-specific patterns revealed that buffaloes were high-risk carriers (63.77%), compared with cattle (35.33%) and bison (12.90%). Temporal trends indicated a concerning rise post-2020 (peak 53.83% in 2023), associated with intensified livestock trade and improved diagnostics. Respiratory diseases (41.06%) and mastitis (42.50%) dominated clinical manifestations, contrasting with lower arthritis rates (24.90%). Regional extremes-such as 100% prevalence in Jordan and 86.90% in Spain-highlighted surveillance biases from small sample studies. Methodological discordance was evident, as PCR-adjusted prevalence exceeded crude estimates by 47.5% due to inverse variance weighting and ELISA's extreme heterogeneity reflected antigen selection biases. Age-stratified analyses revealed paradoxical reversals after adjustment, with calves showing higher prevalence (32.43%) than older cattle (23.85%), underscoring study design confounders. These findings demonstrate that observed patterns reflect both true epidemiology and diagnostic variability. Standardized protocols using World Health Organization-recommended antigens, anatomically targeted sampling, and multicenter validation are urgently needed. This study establishes a foundational framework for developing region-specific strategies to mitigate the rising global burden of M. bovis.