Advances in spectroscopic techniques for the detection of cheese adulteration: A systematic review

Cheese adulteration represents a growing concern in the global dairy sector, especially for products with Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) status. This systematic review critically examines the application of eight major spectroscopic techniques-such as NMR, FTIR, NIR, Raman, IRMS, and MS-based methods-for detecting diverse forms of cheese adulteration, including species substitution, fat and protein replacement, non-dairy additives, geographical mislabeling, and antibiotic residues. Following PRISMA guidelines, 104 peer-reviewed studies were retrieved from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The review systematically evaluates these methods across 20 cheese types and 60 unique configurations based on sensitivity, specificity, sample preparation, matrix adaptability, and real-world applicability. Results demonstrate that while no single technique is universally optimal, each offers distinct advantages based on adulterant type and detection context. The combination of spectroscopic tools with chemometric models substantially enhances detection robustness. This is the first comprehensive review focused exclusively on spectroscopic authentication of cheese, providing a practical reference for researchers, regulatory bodies, and industry stakeholders committed to ensuring dairy integrity and transparency.