Analyzing the Caloric Variability of Bites in a Semi-Naturalistic Dietary Setting

Background: Obesity is a major public health issue in developed countries, primarily managed through dietary interventions and physical activity. Food portion sizes influence the estimation of energy intake, particularly through bites, of which characteristics remain insufficiently defined. This study investigates the variability in bite energy content. Methods: This observational study was conducted over 14 months. Thirteen types of packaged food were provided to 30 Italian healthy volunteers (mean age 26.8 ± 8.5 years) in a semi-naturalistic dietary feeding setting. Participants' anthropometric measurements were recorded. A total of 1850 bites were weighed and 420 bites were assessed for volume and energy content. Results: Bite volume and mass explained bite energy content at different rates. The most influential anthropometric feature was waist circumference. Gender modified the association between waist circumference and bite characteristics; males showed increased bite volume, mass, and energy content as waist circumference increased, whereas females showed little or no association. Age was inversely associated with bite volume and mass, with younger participants having larger bites. Gender significantly influenced average bite size, with females showing lower values than males. The use of a fork was associated with higher bite volume, mass, and energy compared to a spoon. Food eaten with bare hands had lower mass but higher energy content compared to food eaten with a spoon. The variability in bite energy was considerably greater per bite than per gram, reflecting the combined influence of food texture, bite size, and cutlery used. Conclusions: Bite energy variability, influenced by intrinsic factors (gender, age, waist circumference) and extrinsic factors (cutlery, food texture), significantly impacts portion size effect. Future bite counters should consider these elements for accurate dietary assessment.